Category: SCIENCE BLOG

Fungi make an extraordinarily important contribution to managing disease in humans and other animals.Fungi are involved in the industrial processing of more than 10 of the 20 most profitable products used in human medicine. Two anti-cholesterol statins, the antibiotic penicillin and the immunosuppressant cyclosporin A are among the top 10.
The role of fungi was established early in history. Yeasts have been used in the making of bread and alcohol since the beginning of civilisation. In modern times, the discovery of penicillin marked the beginning of a new approach to microbial diseases in human health. More recent approaches include the application of hydrophobins to surfaces leading to biocompatibility of implants, and to emulsion formation improving drug delivery. The established importance of fungi is being expanding way beyond their capacity to transform and protect.
Antibiotics From Fungi
penicillin is obtained from the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum , used to treat an infection caused by a bacterium. Use of penicilin revolutionised the treatment of pathogenic disease. Many formally fatal diseases caused by bacteria became treatable, and new forms of medical intervention were possible.
Modifications to manufacturing conditions have resulted in the development of oral forms. However, antibiotic resistance among bacteria is becoming an extremely important aspect determining the long-term use of all antibiotics.
Cephalosporins also contain the beta lactam ring. The original fungus found to produce the compounds was a Cephalosporium, hence the name. As with penicillin, the cephalosporin antibiotics have a number of disadvantages. Industrial modification of the active ingredients has reduced these problems.
Griseofulvin source was Penicillium griseofulvin. Griseofulvin is fungistatic, rather than fungicidal. It is used for the treatment of dermatophytes, as it accumulates in the hair and skin following topical application.
More recently, several new groups have been developed. Strobilurins target the ubihydroquinone oxidation centre, and in mammals, the compound from fungi is immediately excreted. Basidiomycetes, especially from tropical regions, produce an enormous diversity of these compounds.
Immune Suppressants
Cyclosporin A is a primary metabolite of several fungi, including Trichoderma polysporum and Cylindrocarpon lucidum. Cyclosporin A has proven to be a powerful immunosuppressant in mammals, being widely used during and after bone marrow and organ transplants in humans. Cyclosporin A is a cyclic peptide consisting of 11 mainly hydrophobic amino acids. Its inhibition of lymphocytes was first discovered during the 1970s. Subsequently, the mode of action was elucidated.
Calcineurin is also highly conserved amongst phylogenetically diverse organisms. In fungi such as the human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, calcineurin is necessary for recovery from cell cycle arrest, growth in hypertonic solutions and regulation of the calcium pump. Thus the interaction of the Cyclosporin A/cyclophilin complex with calcineurin in Cryptococcus will result in death of the pathogen. However, in humans, cyclosporin also suppresses the immune system. The side effect is an unacceptable risk, and Cyclosporin A is not used as a fungicide in humans at present.
Gliotoxins also have immunological and antibiotic activity. Produced by many fungi including Aspergillus fumigatus, gliotoxins belong to a class of compounds called epipolythiodioxopiperazines. The antibiotic activity is widely recognised and considered uninteresting. However, its effect on the immune system, especially macrophages, is being re-examined.
A wide range of other compounds with antibiotic activity are also known. They have been rejected for use in medicine because of unwanted side effects, or instability of the active compound.
Ergot Alkaloids
Claviceps purpurea is the causal agent of St Anthonies fire, a scourge of the middle ages when ergots contaminated flour.The ergots contain many alkaloids. Their effects are quite variable. They act on the sympathetic nervous system resulting in the inhibition of noradrenaline and sclerotin, causing dilation of blood vessels. They also act directly on the smooth muscles of the uterus causing contractions, thus their early use to induce abortion. Their strongest effect is intoxication, caused by lysergic acid amides, one of which is the recreational (and illegal) drug, LSD.
Statins
Aspergillus terreus, a soil-borne fungus, produces a secondary metabolite called lovastatin and Phoma sp produces squalestatin. Statins have been used to reduce or remove low density lipoproteins from blood vessels in humans.

A mushroom (or toadstool) is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source.
The standard for the name “mushroom” is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word “mushroom” is most often applied to those fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem (stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella) on the underside of the cap. These gills produce microscopic spores that help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface.
Nutrition
Mushrooms are a low-calorie food eaten cooked, raw or as a garnish to a meal. In a 100 g serving, mushrooms are an excellent source (higher than 20% of the daily value, of B vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid, an excellent source of the essential minerals, selenium and copper, and a good source of phosphorus and potassium. Fat, carbohydrate and calorie content are low, with absence of vitamin C and sodium. There are 27 calories in a typical serving of fresh mushrooms.
Edible mushrooms
Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many cuisines (notably Chinese, Korean, European, and Japanese). Though neither meat nor vegetable, mushrooms are known as the “meat” of the vegetable world.
The most popular of these, Agaricus bisporus, is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello.
Medicinal properties

Ganoderma lucidum
Some mushrooms or extracts are used or studied as possible treatments for diseases, such as cardiovascular disorders. Some mushroom materials, including polysaccharides, glycoproteins and proteoglycans are under basic research for their potential to modulate immune system responses and inhibit tumor growth, whereas other isolates show potential antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic properties.
Preliminary experiments show glucan-containing mushroom extracts may affect function of the innate and adaptive immune systems, functioning as bioresponse modulators. In some countries, extracts of polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharide peptide, or lentinan are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies.
As of June 2014, whole mushrooms or mushroom ingredients are being studied in 32 human clinical trials registered with the US National Institutes of Health for their potential effects on a variety of diseases and normal physiological conditions, including vitamin D deficiency, cancer, bone metabolism, glaucoma, immune functions and inflammatory bowel disease.

Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with properties of operations and the structures these operations. Algebra is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. In its most general form, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols;
In elementary algebra, those symbols represent quantities without fixed values, known as variables. Just as sentences describe relationships between specific words, in algebra, equations describe relationships between variables. it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. As such, it includes everything from elementary equation solving to the study of abstractions such as groups, rings, and fields.
The basic parts of algebra is elementary algebra, the more abstract parts are called abstract algebra or modern algebra. Elementary algebra is essential for any study of mathematics, science, or engineering, as well as such applications as medicine and economics. Abstract algebra is a major area in advanced mathematics
Simply put, Algebra is about finding the unknown or it is about putting real life problems into equations and then solving them. Unfortunately many textbooks go straight to the rules, procedures and formulas, forgetting that these are real life problems being solved.
A branch of mathematics that substitutes letters for numbers. An algebraic equation represents a scale, what is done on one side of the scale with a number is also done to the other side of the scale. The numbers are the constants. Algebra can include real numbers, complex numbers, matrices, vectors etc.

Application of Algebra:
1. Mathematics is one of the first things we learn in life. Even as a baby we learn to count. Starting from that tiny age you will start to learn how to use building blocks how to count and then move on to drawing objects and figures. All of these things are important preparation to doing algebra.
2. When doing any form of science, whether just a project or a lifetime career choice, we will have to be able to do and understand how to use and apply algebra.
3. Formulas are a part of our lives. Whether we drive a car and need to calculate the distance, or need to work out the volume in a milk container, algebraic formulas are used everyday without realizing it.
4. What about the entering of any data. we use of algebraic expressions and the use of equations will be like a corner stone when working with data entry. When working on the computer with spreadsheets we need algebraic skills to enter, design and plan.
5. How much can we earn on an annual basis with the correct interest rate. How will we know which company gives the best ifwe can’t work out the graphs and understand the percentages. In today’s life a good investment is imperative.
6. we use algebra all the time in real life. It might not happen to involve numbers, but the skills are still there. Say you get home from school one day and you can’t find your key. How would you get into your house? You’d probably do some version of turning the problem around, maybe check the windows to see if you could get in that way, and maybe retrace your steps to see if you dropped your keys somewhere. Eventually, something would work out, and you’d figure out a way to get into your house.
7. Most of us use algebra every day – simple problems that we “do in our heads”. For instance, say you have Rs.20 and you go to the store. The store is having a “buy one and get one at half price” sale. How do you figure out what you can buy? There’s an equation for that. Or, “how tall is that building?” If you know how far away it is, and the height of any one thing you have at hand, there’s an equation for that
8. Like when we are playing games also we use algebra. Pointing from where to start and where to end.

This article is about scattering of waves on a water surface. For different types of scattering, see Scattering (disambiguation).

In liquid progress, scattering of water waves by and large alludes to recurrence scattering, which implies that floods of various wavelengths go at various stage speeds. Water waves, in this connection, are waves engendering on the water surface, and constrained by gravity and surface strain. Thus, water with a free surface is by and large thought to be a dispersive medium.

Surface gravity waves, moving under the compelling by gravity, engender quicker to increase wavelength. For a given wavelength, gravity waves in more profound water have a bigger stage speed than in shallower water. Interestingly with this, hairlike waves just constrained by surface strain, proliferate quicker for shorter wavelengths.

Other than recurrence scattering, water waves additionally show adequacy scattering. This is a nonlinear impact, by which influxes of bigger abundancy have an alternate stage speed from little plentifulness waves. On the off chance that the wave speed depends just on the physical properties of the medium (i.e., the flexible and dormancy properties of a mechanical medium, or the relative penetrability and permittivity for EM waves) then the wave pace is a steady, free of recurrence. Such a medium is known as a non-dispersive medium and waves going through this medium will keep up a steady shape. This is delineated by the dark wave beat in the movement at left. The beat is a Gaussian capacity, containing various frequencies. Subsequent to the wave velocity is consistent, all frequencies go at the same pace and the beat keeps up steady shape.

Be that as it may, there are numerous samples of dispersive media where, for different reasons, the wave speed relies on upon the recurrence of the wave. The blue wave beat in the liveliness is the same Gaussian capacity as the dark heartbeat, comprising of countless segments included. Be that as it may, now the wave speed relies on upon recurrence, with higher frequencies voyaging speedier than lower frequencies. Accordingly, the wave beat spreads out and changes shape as it ventures.

The “middles” of both wave beats go at the same velocity. This prompts the idea of a “gathering speed” which is the pace with which the vitality conveyed by the wave ventures. The gathering speed is the same for every wave beat.

In cell science, the nucleus is a membrane enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes typically have a solitary nucleus; however a couple cell sorts have no nucleus, and a couple of others have numerous.
Cell nucleus contain the greater part of the cell’s genetic material, sorted out as different long straight DNA atoms in complex with a substantial variety of proteins, for example, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The qualities inside of these chromosomes are the cell’s atomic genome. The capacity of the nucleus is to keep up the respectability of these qualities and to control the exercises of the cell by managing integrity expression—the nucleus is, in this manner, the control centre point of the cell. The principle structures making up the nucleus are the atomic envelope, a double fold membrane that encases the whole organelle and confines its substance from the cell cytoplasm, and the nucleoskeleton, a system inside of the nucleus that includes mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which support the cell in whole.

Since the atomic layer is impermeable to extensive particles, atomic pores are required that control atomic transport of particles over the envelope. The pores cross both atomic membranes, giving a channel through which bigger particles must be effectively transported via transporter proteins while permitting free development of little atoms and particles. Development of large particles, for example, proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both quality expression and the maintenance of chromosomes. The inside of the core does not contain any membrane bound sub compartments, its substance are not uniform, and various sub-atomic bodies exist, made up of one of a kind proteins, RNA particles, and specific parts of the chromosomes. The best-known of these is the nucleolus, which is principally included in the gathering of ribosomes. Subsequent to being created in the nucleolus, ribosomes are sent out to the cytoplasm where they translate mRN.

The plastid is a major twofold film organelle found, among others, in the cells of plants and algae. Plastids are the site of assembling and capacity of essential synthetic mixes utilized by the cell. They frequently contain shades utilized as a part of photosynthesis, and the sorts of colors present can change or decide the cell’s shading. They have a typical starting point and have a twofold stranded DNA particle that is roundabout, similar to that of prokayotes.
Contingent upon their morphology and capacity, plastids can separate, or redifferentiate, in the middle of these and different structures.
Every plastid makes various duplicates of a roundabout 75–250 kilobase plastome. The quantity of genome duplicates per plastid is variable, running from more than 1000 in quickly partitioning cells, which, when all is said in done, contain couple of plastids, to 100 or less in full grown cells, where plastid divisions have offered ascend to an extensive number of plastids. The plastome contains around 100 qualities encoding ribosomal and exchange ribonucleic acids (rRNAs and tRNAs) and additionally proteins included in photosynthesis and plastid quality interpretation. However, these proteins just speak to a little portion of the aggregate protein set-up important to construct and keep up the structure and capacity of a specific kind of plastid. Plant atomic qualities encode by far most of plastid proteins, and the declaration of plastid qualities and atomic qualities is firmly co-directed to arrange proper development of plastids in connection to cell separation.

Plastid DNA exists as substantial protein-DNA complexes connected with the inward envelope membrane and called ‘plastid nucleoids’. Each nucleoid molecule might contain more than 10 duplicates of the plastid DNA. The proplastid contains a solitary nucleoid situated in the centre point of the plastid. The creating plastid has numerous nucleoids, confined at the periphery of the plastid, bound to the internal envelope membrane. During the improvement of proplastids to chloroplasts, and when plastids change over starting with one sort then onto the next, nucleoids change in morphology, size and area inside of the organelle. The modification of nucleoids is accepted to happen by changes to the creation and abundance of nucleoid protein.